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1348

Culture14th CenturyEurope

Edward III Establishes Order of the Garter

During the Hundred Years' War, King Edward III of England sought to bolster loyalty among his nobility and project chivalric prestige amid ongoing conflicts with France. Inspired by Arthurian legends and possibly by a courtly incident involving a dropped garter, he created England's premier order of knighthood on April 23, 1348, coinciding with the feast of St. George, the country's patron saint. The order initially comprised the sovereign and twenty-five knights, emphasizing military valor, courtly behavior, and allegiance to the crown. Its motto, 'Honi soit qui mal y pense,' and blue garter insignia became enduring symbols of English honor. The order's chapel at St. George's, Windsor, served as its spiritual center from the outset.

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1356

Military14th CenturyEurope

Battle of Poitiers Captures French King John II

The Hundred Years' War between England and France had already seen major clashes like Crécy two decades earlier, with English longbow tactics proving decisive against French cavalry. In 1356, Edward the Black Prince led a smaller Anglo-Gascon force into western France seeking supplies and plunder while French King John II assembled a much larger army to intercept him. On September 19 near Poitiers, the English positioned defensively behind a hedge on a slope; French attacks in successive divisions faltered under archery fire, leading to hand-to-hand combat where dismounted French knights suffered heavy losses. King John II was captured along with many nobles after his division was overwhelmed. The immediate result was a catastrophic French defeat that forced negotiations and an...

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1377

Politics14th CenturyEurope

Pope Gregory XI Returns Papacy to Rome

For nearly seven decades, the popes had resided in Avignon, France, under the influence of French monarchs following the move initiated by Pope Clement V in 1309. This period, known as the Avignon Papacy or Babylonian Captivity, distanced the papal court from its traditional seat in Rome and fueled criticism of the Church's independence. Pope Gregory XI, the last French pope and seventh Avignon pontiff, faced mounting pressure from Italian figures including St. Catherine of Siena, who urged his return to restore the Church's spiritual authority and address conflicts in Italy. On January 17, 1377, Gregory made a solemn entrance into Rome after departing Avignon the previous year and traveling via sea to Ostia. He entered the city despite opposition...

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1381

Politics14th CenturyEurope

Peasants' Revolt Rebels Enter London and Burn Savoy Palace

England faced widespread unrest in 1381 after years of heavy taxation to fund wars with France and the imposition of a new poll tax that burdened the poor. Led by Wat Tyler and other figures, thousands of peasants and townspeople from Kent and Essex marched toward the capital to demand an end to serfdom and tax relief. On June 13, the rebels reached London, where they were joined by local supporters. They attacked prisons, released inmates, and targeted symbols of royal authority, including the lavish Savoy Palace owned by John of Gaunt, which they looted and set ablaze. Government officials and associates were killed in the violence that followed.

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1381

Civil Rights14th CenturyEurope

Peasants' Revolt Rebels Storm Tower of London

In the wake of the Black Death and amid economic hardship from the Statute of Labourers and repeated poll taxes, unrest erupted in southeast England in May 1381. Led by figures including Wat Tyler, thousands of rebels from Kent and Essex marched on London to protest taxation and serfdom. On June 14, King Richard II met Essex rebels at Mile End and granted temporary concessions including charters abolishing serfdom. Meanwhile, Kentish rebels entered the Tower of London without resistance, seizing and beheading Chancellor Simon Sudbury and Treasurer Robert Hales. The event highlighted deep social tensions in late medieval England and forced the young king into direct negotiations.

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1386

Politics14th CenturyEurope

Treaty of Windsor Ratified Between England and Portugal

In the late 14th century, Portugal faced threats from Castile during the 1383–1385 succession crisis following the death of King Ferdinand I. John I of Portugal secured victory at the Battle of Aljubarrota in 1385 with English military support, including archers. On May 9, 1386, the Treaty of Windsor was ratified at Windsor, England, formalizing a perpetual alliance of mutual defense and friendship between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of England under Richard II. The agreement committed both nations to aid each other against common enemies and was sealed by the marriage of John I to Philippa of Lancaster. This pact built upon earlier treaties from 1373 and established one of history's longest-lasting diplomatic relationships.

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1397

Politics14th CenturyEurope

Kalmar Union Unites Denmark, Sweden, and Norway

In the closing years of the fourteenth century, Queen Margaret I of Denmark had already secured control over Denmark and Norway following the death of her son Olaf. Facing threats from German expansion and internal noble conflicts in Sweden, she maneuvered to place her great-nephew Eric of Pomerania on multiple thrones. After Eric's election as king in each realm during 1396, Margaret convened the councils of state from all three kingdoms at Kalmar in Sweden. On June 17, 1397, Eric was crowned in a joint ceremony in Kalmar Cathedral, and a union treaty was drafted establishing a single monarch over Denmark, Sweden, and Norway while preserving some separate institutions. The agreement aimed to create a stable northern bloc but left...

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1399

Politics14th CenturyEurope

Richard II Deposed as Henry Bolingbroke Claims Throne

By late September 1399, Henry Bolingbroke had returned from exile and rapidly gained support against his cousin King Richard II of England, whose rule had grown increasingly tyrannical after years of conflict with the nobility. Richard, who had been campaigning in Ireland, surrendered at Flint Castle in August and was brought to London. On September 29, he was persuaded to sign an abdication document in the Tower of London. The following day, September 30, the Archbishop of Canterbury read the formal abdication statement to Parliament at Westminster Hall, where thirty-three articles of deposition were presented and accepted by the lords and commons. Bolingbroke was then proclaimed King Henry IV. Richard was imprisoned and later died in captivity under unclear circumstances.

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1410

Military15th CenturyEurope

Polish-Lithuanian Army Defeats Teutonic Knights at Grunwald

The Teutonic Order had long waged crusades against non-Christian neighbors and questioned the sincerity of Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas’s conversion after his 1386 marriage alliance with Poland. In 1409 the Order’s Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen declared war on the Polish-Lithuanian union. An allied army of roughly 29,000 troops under King Władysław II Jagiełło and Vytautas advanced toward the Order’s capital at Marienburg. On July 15 the forces met between the villages of Grunwald and Tannenberg in northeastern Poland. After hours of combat the Teutonic heavy cavalry initially gained ground, yet Lithuanian forces returned to strike the Knights’ rear; von Jungingen was killed and most of the Order’s leadership fell or was captured.

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1415

Military15th CenturyEurope

English Triumph at Battle of Agincourt

During the Hundred Years' War, King Henry V of England led an invasion of France in 1415 to press his claim to the French throne amid ongoing dynastic disputes. His army, exhausted and outnumbered after a long march, faced a much larger French force near the village of Agincourt on October 25. Despite muddy terrain and numerical disadvantage, English longbowmen decimated the French cavalry and infantry charges. The English secured a decisive victory, capturing or killing many French nobles. This outcome bolstered Henry V's position and allowed him to advance further into French territory in subsequent campaigns.

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1422

Politics15th CenturyEurope

Infant Henry VI Ascends English Throne

In the midst of the Hundred Years' War, King Henry V of England had been campaigning successfully in France when he fell ill with dysentery during the siege of Meaux. He died on August 31, 1422, at the Château de Vincennes near Paris at age 35. His only son, Henry VI, born the previous December, was just nine months old and immediately succeeded to the English throne as the youngest monarch in English history. Under the terms of the Treaty of Troyes, the infant also stood to inherit the French crown upon the death of his grandfather Charles VI, which occurred weeks later. Regents including the Duke of Bedford were appointed to govern during the minority, setting the stage for...

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1429

Military15th CenturyEurope

Joan of Arc Enters Besieged Orléans

By early 1429, English forces had maintained a tight siege around the strategic French city of Orléans for months as part of the Hundred Years’ War, cutting off supplies and threatening to starve the defenders into submission. The teenage peasant visionary Joan of Arc, claiming divine guidance to support the Dauphin Charles, joined a supply convoy assembling at Blois and insisted on a direct approach despite commanders’ preferences for safer routes. On April 29, after a circuitous southern approach along the Loire, Joan and a small escort crossed into the city under cover of a diversionary French sortie on the western side, entering triumphantly through the eastern gate around 8 p.m. amid celebrations from the relieved garrison and citizens. She...

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1429

Politics15th CenturyEurope

Henry VI Crowned King of England at Westminster

Following the death of his father Henry V in 1422, the infant Henry VI had acceded to the English throne at nine months old amid the ongoing Hundred Years' War with France. A regency council governed in his name during his minority. On his eighth birthday eve, Henry was crowned in a grand ceremony at Westminster Abbey to affirm his legitimacy and strengthen royal authority. The event occurred as English forces faced challenges in France, including Joan of Arc's campaigns. The coronation reinforced the continuity of the Lancastrian dynasty despite the young king's inability to rule independently.

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1430

Military15th CenturyEurope

Joan of Arc Captured by Burgundians at Compiègne

During the Hundred Years' War, French forces under Charles VII sought to reclaim territories from English and Burgundian allies. Joan of Arc, the young visionary who had helped lift the Siege of Orléans and led to the king's coronation at Reims, arrived at the besieged town of Compiègne in mid-May 1430 with a small volunteer force. On May 23, she led a sortie against the Burgundian camp but was outflanked during the retreat; unhorsed near the city gates, she surrendered to Burgundian captain Lionel de Wandomme rather than risk capture by English troops. Her Burgundian captors quickly transferred her to Jean de Luxembourg for safekeeping in their castles. The loss of France's most effective military leader stunned her supporters and...

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1431

Law15th CenturyEurope

Trial of Joan of Arc Begins in Rouen

In the midst of the Hundred Years' War, English forces and their Burgundian allies held the city of Rouen in northern France after capturing the young peasant visionary who had rallied French troops. Joan of Arc, known as the Maid of Orléans, faced an ecclesiastical court convened by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on charges including heresy, witchcraft, and cross-dressing. The proceedings, which began publicly on January 9, involved dozens of sessions over several weeks where Joan defended her divine mission and visions. She was ultimately convicted, though she briefly recanted before reaffirming her stance, leading to her execution by burning at the stake in May. The trial reflected intense political and religious tensions between England, France, and the Church during the...

Event Detail
1431

Other15th CenturyEurope

Joan of Arc Executed by Burning in Rouen

During the Hundred Years' War, Joan of Arc, a peasant girl from Domrémy, led French forces to key victories against the English, including the lifting of the siege of Orléans in 1429 and the coronation of Charles VII at Reims. Captured by Burgundian allies of England in 1430 near Compiègne, she was sold to the English and tried by a pro-English ecclesiastical court in Rouen for heresy and cross-dressing. The trial, presided over by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, featured intense interrogations where Joan defended her divine visions and military role. Found guilty after recanting briefly then reaffirming her beliefs, she was handed to secular authorities. On May 30, 1431, at age 19, Joan was burned at the stake in Rouen's Old...

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1444

Military15th CenturyEurope

Ottoman Victory at Battle of Varna

In the mid-15th century, the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Murad II aggressively expanded into the Balkans, threatening Christian kingdoms in southeastern Europe. The Crusade of Varna, backed by Pope Eugene IV, assembled a multinational force led by King Władysław III of Poland and Hungary along with John Hunyadi to halt this advance and relieve pressure on Constantinople. On November 10, 1444, near the Black Sea port of Varna in present-day Bulgaria, the crusader army engaged the Ottomans in open battle despite being outnumbered. King Władysław led a bold cavalry charge that ended with his death, causing the Christian lines to collapse amid heavy fighting. The Ottomans secured a decisive victory, inflicting massive casualties and ending the crusade. This outcome solidified...

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1453

Military15th CenturyEurope

Ottomans Capture Constantinople Ending Byzantine Empire

By the mid-15th century, the once-vast Byzantine Empire had shrunk to little more than the city of Constantinople itself, surrounded by Ottoman territories after decades of expansion under sultans like Murad II. Sultan Mehmed II, determined to claim the strategic city at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, assembled a massive army and navy and launched a siege in April 1453 that lasted nearly two months. Ottoman forces employed innovative siege cannons, including massive bombards designed by Hungarian engineer Orban, to batter the ancient Theodosian Walls. On May 29, after a final assault that breached the defenses, Ottoman troops overwhelmed the city despite fierce resistance led by Emperor Constantine XI. The emperor perished in the fighting, and the Ottomans looted...

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1455

Military15th CenturyEurope

First Battle of St Albans Ignites Wars of the Roses

In the mid-15th century, England faced deepening divisions between the rival houses of Lancaster and York amid weak royal authority under King Henry VI. Richard, Duke of York, and his Neville allies marched on the royal forces near London to challenge the influence of the Duke of Somerset. On May 22, 1455, Yorkist troops engaged Lancastrian defenders in the streets of St Albans, Hertfordshire, in a brief but decisive clash that lasted about an hour. The battle resulted in a Yorkist victory, with Somerset killed and Henry VI captured, though casualties remained relatively low. This encounter traditionally marks the start of the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars that reshaped English politics for decades.

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1456

Law15th CenturyEurope

Joan of Arc Acquitted of Heresy in Posthumous Retrial

In the mid-15th century, France remained embroiled in the Hundred Years' War with England, and Joan of Arc had emerged as a charismatic military leader who inspired French forces before her capture and execution in 1431 on charges of heresy. Twenty-five years later, at the request of her family and amid efforts to rehabilitate her reputation and bolster French national identity, a retrial convened in Rouen under ecclesiastical authorities. The proceedings examined the original trial's irregularities, including procedural flaws and political motivations tied to English influence. On July 7, 1456, the court issued a verdict declaring Joan innocent of heresy, nullifying the prior condemnation. This outcome restored her standing as a national heroine and set precedents for later canonization processes...

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1456

Military15th CenturyEurope

Hunyadi's Forces Repel Ottomans at Belgrade

In the mid-15th century, the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Mehmed II sought to expand into Europe following the 1453 fall of Constantinople. Hungarian regent John Hunyadi organized a defense of the strategic fortress city of Belgrade, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary, bolstered by crusader volunteers and local forces. Ottoman troops besieged the city starting in early July, deploying heavy artillery and naval forces on the Danube. On July 21, Mehmed launched a major assault that nearly breached the walls, but defenders held firm. The next day, July 22, the Ottomans faced a determined counterattack and supply issues, prompting Mehmed, who was wounded, to lift the siege and retreat. This outcome preserved Hungarian control over the Danube frontier for...

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1460

Military15th CenturyEurope

Battle of Wakefield in Wars of the Roses

In the midst of the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic struggle between the houses of Lancaster and York for the English throne, Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, advanced his claim through the Act of Accord, positioning himself as heir to the mentally unstable King Henry VI. Seeking to consolidate power in the north, York took up position at Sandal Castle near Wakefield with a force of several thousand. On December 30, 1460, a larger Lancastrian army under Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and other nobles launched a surprise attack, overwhelming the Yorkists in fierce fighting. York himself was captured and killed on the battlefield, along with his son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, and ally Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury....

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1461

Military15th CenturyEurope

Battle of Towton Secures Yorkist Throne in England

In the midst of the Wars of the Roses, rival factions of the English nobility fought bitterly for control of the crown after the deposition of Henry VI. The Lancastrian forces, supporting the restored but weak Henry VI and his queen Margaret of Anjou, confronted the Yorkist army led by Edward, Earl of March, near the village of Towton in Yorkshire. On Palm Sunday, in driving snow and bitter cold, the two sides clashed in what became the largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil, involving perhaps 50,000 men. Edward's forces, aided by superior tactics and the weather, routed the Lancastrians after hours of fighting. The victory allowed Edward to claim the throne as Edward IV and temporarily...

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1469

Politics15th CenturyEurope

Ferdinand of Aragon Marries Isabella of Castile

In the mid-15th century, the Iberian Peninsula remained fragmented among competing Christian kingdoms while facing external threats from Muslim Granada and internal noble rivalries. Isabella, heiress to Castile, sought a strategic alliance to secure her claim against her half-brother King Henry IV. On October 19, 1469, she married Ferdinand, heir to Aragon, in a discreet ceremony at Valladolid after obtaining a papal dispensation for their cousin relationship. The couple immediately coordinated policies despite separate crowns. Their partnership rapidly consolidated power through joint military campaigns and administrative reforms.

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