15th Century

Polish-Lithuanian Army Defeats Teutonic Knights at Grunwald

The Teutonic Order had long waged crusades against non-Christian neighbors and questioned the sincerity of Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas’s conversion after his 1386 marriage alliance with Poland. In 1409 the Order’s Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen declared war on the Polish-Lithuanian union. An allied army of roughly 29,000 troops under King Władysław II Jagiełło and Vytautas advanced toward the Order’s capital at Marienburg. On July 15 the forces met between the villages of Grunwald and Tannenberg in northeastern Poland. After hours of combat the Teutonic heavy cavalry initially gained ground, yet Lithuanian forces returned to strike the Knights’ rear; von Jungingen was killed and most of the Order’s leadership fell or was captured.

1415

English Triumph at Battle of Agincourt

During the Hundred Years' War, King Henry V of England led an invasion of France in 1415 to press his claim to the French throne amid ongoing dynastic disputes. His army, exhausted and outnumbered after a long march, faced a much larger French force near the village of Agincourt on October 25. Despite muddy terrain and numerical disadvantage, English longbowmen decimated the French cavalry and infantry charges. The English secured a decisive victory, capturing or killing many French nobles. This outcome bolstered Henry V's position and allowed him to advance further into French territory in subsequent campaigns.

1422

Infant Henry VI Ascends English Throne

In the midst of the Hundred Years' War, King Henry V of England had been campaigning successfully in France when he fell ill with dysentery during the siege of Meaux. He died on August 31, 1422, at the Château de Vincennes near Paris at age 35. His only son, Henry VI, born the previous December, was just nine months old and immediately succeeded to the English throne as the youngest monarch in English history. Under the terms of the Treaty of Troyes, the infant also stood to inherit the French crown upon the death of his grandfather Charles VI, which occurred weeks later. Regents including the Duke of Bedford were appointed to govern during the minority, setting the stage for...

1429

Joan of Arc Enters Besieged Orléans

By early 1429, English forces had maintained a tight siege around the strategic French city of Orléans for months as part of the Hundred Years’ War, cutting off supplies and threatening to starve the defenders into submission. The teenage peasant visionary Joan of Arc, claiming divine guidance to support the Dauphin Charles, joined a supply convoy assembling at Blois and insisted on a direct approach despite commanders’ preferences for safer routes. On April 29, after a circuitous southern approach along the Loire, Joan and a small escort crossed into the city under cover of a diversionary French sortie on the western side, entering triumphantly through the eastern gate around 8 p.m. amid celebrations from the relieved garrison and citizens. She...

1429

Henry VI Crowned King of England at Westminster

Following the death of his father Henry V in 1422, the infant Henry VI had acceded to the English throne at nine months old amid the ongoing Hundred Years' War with France. A regency council governed in his name during his minority. On his eighth birthday eve, Henry was crowned in a grand ceremony at Westminster Abbey to affirm his legitimacy and strengthen royal authority. The event occurred as English forces faced challenges in France, including Joan of Arc's campaigns. The coronation reinforced the continuity of the Lancastrian dynasty despite the young king's inability to rule independently.

1430

Joan of Arc Captured by Burgundians at Compiègne

During the Hundred Years' War, French forces under Charles VII sought to reclaim territories from English and Burgundian allies. Joan of Arc, the young visionary who had helped lift the Siege of Orléans and led to the king's coronation at Reims, arrived at the besieged town of Compiègne in mid-May 1430 with a small volunteer force. On May 23, she led a sortie against the Burgundian camp but was outflanked during the retreat; unhorsed near the city gates, she surrendered to Burgundian captain Lionel de Wandomme rather than risk capture by English troops. Her Burgundian captors quickly transferred her to Jean de Luxembourg for safekeeping in their castles. The loss of France's most effective military leader stunned her supporters and...

1431

Law 15th Century Europe

Trial of Joan of Arc Begins in Rouen

In the midst of the Hundred Years' War, English forces and their Burgundian allies held the city of Rouen in northern France after capturing the young peasant visionary who had rallied French troops. Joan of Arc, known as the Maid of Orléans, faced an ecclesiastical court convened by Bishop Pierre Cauchon on charges including heresy, witchcraft, and cross-dressing. The proceedings, which began publicly on January 9, involved dozens of sessions over several weeks where Joan defended her divine mission and visions. She was ultimately convicted, though she briefly recanted before reaffirming her stance, leading to her execution by burning at the stake in May. The trial reflected intense political and religious tensions between England, France, and the Church during the...

Other 15th Century Europe

1431

Joan of Arc Executed by Burning in Rouen

During the Hundred Years' War, Joan of Arc, a peasant girl from Domrémy, led French forces to key victories against the English, including the lifting of the siege of Orléans in 1429 and the coronation of Charles VII at Reims. Captured by Burgundian allies of England in 1430 near Compiègne, she was sold to the English and tried by a pro-English ecclesiastical court in Rouen for heresy and cross-dressing. The trial, presided over by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, featured intense interrogations where Joan defended her divine visions and military role. Found guilty after recanting briefly then reaffirming her beliefs, she was handed to secular authorities. On May 30, 1431, at age 19, Joan was burned at the stake in Rouen's Old...

1444

Ottoman Victory at Battle of Varna

In the mid-15th century, the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Murad II aggressively expanded into the Balkans, threatening Christian kingdoms in southeastern Europe. The Crusade of Varna, backed by Pope Eugene IV, assembled a multinational force led by King Władysław III of Poland and Hungary along with John Hunyadi to halt this advance and relieve pressure on Constantinople. On November 10, 1444, near the Black Sea port of Varna in present-day Bulgaria, the crusader army engaged the Ottomans in open battle despite being outnumbered. King Władysław led a bold cavalry charge that ended with his death, causing the Christian lines to collapse amid heavy fighting. The Ottomans secured a decisive victory, inflicting massive casualties and ending the crusade. This outcome solidified...

Politics 15th Century Middle East & North Africa

1451

Mehmed II Ascends Ottoman Throne

In the mid-15th century, the Ottoman Empire faced internal challenges following the death of Sultan Murad II amid ongoing rivalries with European powers and Byzantine remnants. His young son Mehmed, previously deposed once before, reclaimed power in Edirne on February 3, 1451, at around age 19. He quickly consolidated authority by addressing Janissary unrest and prioritizing military reforms. Mehmed focused on naval expansion and diplomatic maneuvers to isolate potential adversaries. This ascension set the stage for renewed campaigns against Constantinople. The immediate outcome stabilized the empire's leadership and accelerated preparations for major conquests.

1453

Ottomans Capture Constantinople Ending Byzantine Empire

By the mid-15th century, the once-vast Byzantine Empire had shrunk to little more than the city of Constantinople itself, surrounded by Ottoman territories after decades of expansion under sultans like Murad II. Sultan Mehmed II, determined to claim the strategic city at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, assembled a massive army and navy and launched a siege in April 1453 that lasted nearly two months. Ottoman forces employed innovative siege cannons, including massive bombards designed by Hungarian engineer Orban, to batter the ancient Theodosian Walls. On May 29, after a final assault that breached the defenses, Ottoman troops overwhelmed the city despite fierce resistance led by Emperor Constantine XI. The emperor perished in the fighting, and the Ottomans looted...

1455

First Battle of St Albans Ignites Wars of the Roses

In the mid-15th century, England faced deepening divisions between the rival houses of Lancaster and York amid weak royal authority under King Henry VI. Richard, Duke of York, and his Neville allies marched on the royal forces near London to challenge the influence of the Duke of Somerset. On May 22, 1455, Yorkist troops engaged Lancastrian defenders in the streets of St Albans, Hertfordshire, in a brief but decisive clash that lasted about an hour. The battle resulted in a Yorkist victory, with Somerset killed and Henry VI captured, though casualties remained relatively low. This encounter traditionally marks the start of the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars that reshaped English politics for decades.

1456

Law 15th Century Europe

Joan of Arc Acquitted of Heresy in Posthumous Retrial

In the mid-15th century, France remained embroiled in the Hundred Years' War with England, and Joan of Arc had emerged as a charismatic military leader who inspired French forces before her capture and execution in 1431 on charges of heresy. Twenty-five years later, at the request of her family and amid efforts to rehabilitate her reputation and bolster French national identity, a retrial convened in Rouen under ecclesiastical authorities. The proceedings examined the original trial's irregularities, including procedural flaws and political motivations tied to English influence. On July 7, 1456, the court issued a verdict declaring Joan innocent of heresy, nullifying the prior condemnation. This outcome restored her standing as a national heroine and set precedents for later canonization processes...

1456

Hunyadi's Forces Repel Ottomans at Belgrade

In the mid-15th century, the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Mehmed II sought to expand into Europe following the 1453 fall of Constantinople. Hungarian regent John Hunyadi organized a defense of the strategic fortress city of Belgrade, then part of the Kingdom of Hungary, bolstered by crusader volunteers and local forces. Ottoman troops besieged the city starting in early July, deploying heavy artillery and naval forces on the Danube. On July 21, Mehmed launched a major assault that nearly breached the walls, but defenders held firm. The next day, July 22, the Ottomans faced a determined counterattack and supply issues, prompting Mehmed, who was wounded, to lift the siege and retreat. This outcome preserved Hungarian control over the Danube frontier for...

1460

Battle of Wakefield in Wars of the Roses

In the midst of the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic struggle between the houses of Lancaster and York for the English throne, Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, advanced his claim through the Act of Accord, positioning himself as heir to the mentally unstable King Henry VI. Seeking to consolidate power in the north, York took up position at Sandal Castle near Wakefield with a force of several thousand. On December 30, 1460, a larger Lancastrian army under Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and other nobles launched a surprise attack, overwhelming the Yorkists in fierce fighting. York himself was captured and killed on the battlefield, along with his son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, and ally Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury....

1461

Battle of Towton Secures Yorkist Throne in England

In the midst of the Wars of the Roses, rival factions of the English nobility fought bitterly for control of the crown after the deposition of Henry VI. The Lancastrian forces, supporting the restored but weak Henry VI and his queen Margaret of Anjou, confronted the Yorkist army led by Edward, Earl of March, near the village of Towton in Yorkshire. On Palm Sunday, in driving snow and bitter cold, the two sides clashed in what became the largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil, involving perhaps 50,000 men. Edward's forces, aided by superior tactics and the weather, routed the Lancastrians after hours of fighting. The victory allowed Edward to claim the throne as Edward IV and temporarily...

1469

Ferdinand of Aragon Marries Isabella of Castile

In the mid-15th century, the Iberian Peninsula remained fragmented among competing Christian kingdoms while facing external threats from Muslim Granada and internal noble rivalries. Isabella, heiress to Castile, sought a strategic alliance to secure her claim against her half-brother King Henry IV. On October 19, 1469, she married Ferdinand, heir to Aragon, in a discreet ceremony at Valladolid after obtaining a papal dispensation for their cousin relationship. The couple immediately coordinated policies despite separate crowns. Their partnership rapidly consolidated power through joint military campaigns and administrative reforms.

1471

Edward IV Secures Victory at Battle of Barnet

The Wars of the Roses pitted the rival houses of York and Lancaster against each other in a protracted struggle for the English crown during the fifteenth century. Edward IV, having been briefly deposed, returned from exile in the Low Countries to challenge the forces loyal to the restored Henry VI. On Easter Sunday, April 14, 1471, Edward's army confronted the larger Lancastrian host commanded by Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, in heavy fog north of London near Barnet. Mistaken identity and confusion in the fog led to friendly fire incidents among the Lancastrians, allowing Edward's Yorkists to press their advantage. Warwick was killed during the fighting, and his army routed, delivering a decisive blow to the Lancastrian cause.

1471

Yorkists Triumph at Battle of Tewkesbury

In the closing phase of England's Wars of the Roses, rival factions of the houses of Lancaster and York vied for the throne amid years of civil strife following the weak rule of Henry VI. Lancastrian forces under Queen Margaret of Anjou and her son Edward, Prince of Wales, sought to rally support in the west after earlier setbacks. On May 4, 1471, near Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire, King Edward IV's Yorkist army intercepted and decisively defeated the Lancastrians in a fierce engagement on marshy ground. The battle saw heavy casualties, including the death of the Prince of Wales and several leading Lancastrian nobles who were later executed. Edward IV secured his hold on the crown, effectively ending major Lancastrian resistance...

1477

Battle of Nancy Ends Burgundian Wars

In the closing stages of the Burgundian Wars, Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy laid siege to the city of Nancy in Lorraine during the harsh winter of 1476-1477. René II, Duke of Lorraine, allied with the Swiss Confederacy, marched his relief force through snowy terrain to confront the besiegers. On January 5, 1477, the combined Swiss and Lorrainer troops launched a surprise attack on Charles's positions outside Nancy's walls. The Burgundian army, weakened by cold and prior defeats, suffered a crushing rout in which over 7,000 soldiers perished. Charles the Bold himself was killed in the fighting, his body later identified among the fallen. The decisive Swiss-Lorrainer victory dismantled Burgundian military power in the region.

1478

Pazzi Family Attacks Medici Brothers in Florence Cathedral

In the late 15th century, Florence thrived under the de facto rule of the Medici banking family, whose wealth and political influence shaped Renaissance culture and diplomacy across Italy. Rival families and external powers, including Pope Sixtus IV, resented Lorenzo de' Medici's dominance and plotted to eliminate him and his brother Giuliano. On Easter Sunday, April 26, 1478, during High Mass in Florence Cathedral, conspirators including Francesco de' Pazzi and Bernardo Bandini dei Baroncelli struck simultaneously. Giuliano was fatally stabbed, while Lorenzo suffered a neck wound but escaped to the sacristy and then safety. The failed coup triggered swift Medici reprisals, with several plotters executed and the Pazzi family's influence crushed.

1483

Richard III and Queen Anne Crowned at Westminster Abbey

Following the death of his brother Edward IV in April 1483, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, moved swiftly to secure the throne amid claims that Edward's sons were illegitimate. Parliament invited him to assume the crown on June 26. Preparations for the joint coronation with his wife Anne Neville proceeded rapidly at Westminster Abbey. On July 6, the ceremony unfolded with great pomp before much of the English peerage, including the procession from the Tower of London the previous day. Richard and Anne were anointed and crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury in a double ceremony that underscored the new regime's legitimacy.

1485

Battle of Bosworth Field Ends Wars of the Roses

By the mid-1480s, England had endured decades of dynastic conflict known as the Wars of the Roses between the rival houses of Lancaster and York. King Richard III of the House of York faced a challenge from Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, a Lancastrian claimant who had gathered support from disaffected nobles and French backing. On August 22, 1485, the two armies met near Market Bosworth in Leicestershire. Henry's forces, reinforced by the timely intervention of Lord Stanley's troops, overwhelmed Richard's army. Richard III was killed in the fighting, becoming the last English monarch to die in battle. Henry was crowned King Henry VII on the battlefield, uniting the warring factions through his marriage to Elizabeth of York and establishing...

1485

Henry VII Crowned in Westminster Abbey

Following his victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field on August 22, 1485, which ended the Wars of the Roses, Henry Tudor claimed the English throne by right of conquest. He had landed in Wales earlier that summer with French support and defeated the forces of Richard III. To consolidate his position before Parliament convened, Henry arranged his coronation for October 30 in Westminster Abbey. The ceremony featured traditional anointing and crowning rites attended by nobles and clergy. This event formally installed the first Tudor monarch and marked the beginning of a new dynasty after decades of civil conflict.