18th Century

Continental Congress Establishes Marine Corps

During the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress sought to bolster naval capabilities against British forces by creating specialized landing troops. On November 10, 1775, in Philadelphia, the Congress adopted a resolution drafted by John Adams to raise two battalions of Marines for service with the Continental Navy. Captain Samuel Nicholas began recruiting at Tun Tavern, quickly assembling the initial force. These early Marines participated in amphibious operations, including the raid on Nassau in the Bahamas the following year. The resolution laid the foundation for what became the United States Marine Corps after independence.

1775

Continental Army Captures Montreal in Revolution

During the American Revolutionary War, colonial forces sought to secure Canada and prevent British use of the region as a base against the rebellious colonies. Brigadier General Richard Montgomery led an expedition northward after successes at Fort St. Jean. Montreal's defenses were weak, with many residents sympathetic or neutral to the American cause. On November 13, 1775, Montgomery's troops entered the city without opposition as British Governor Guy Carleton withdrew his forces. The capture provided a temporary boost to Patriot morale and supplies. It formed part of a broader but ultimately unsuccessful campaign to bring Canada into the revolution.

1775

American Forces Defeated at Battle of Quebec

In late 1775, during the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Continental Army leaders sought to secure Canada as a fourteenth colony and gain French-Canadian support against Britain. General Richard Montgomery advanced from Montreal while Colonel Benedict Arnold led a grueling march through Maine to join him outside Quebec City. On December 31, amid a fierce blizzard, the combined forces launched a nighttime assault on the heavily fortified city defended by Governor Guy Carleton. Montgomery was killed early in the attack, Arnold was wounded, and hundreds of Americans were captured after failing to breach the walls. The defeat ended the invasion of Canada and forced the survivors into a prolonged but ultimately unsuccessful siege.

Law 18th Century North America

Continental Congress Passes Tory Act

As the American colonies moved toward open rebellion against Britain in late 1775, divisions between Patriots and Loyalists (Tories) created internal threats to the revolutionary cause. The Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, addressed these factions on January 2, 1776, by issuing seven resolutions known as the Tory Act. The measure targeted colonists who remained loyal to King George III, calling for committees to educate the uninformed while authorizing the disarming, imprisonment, or exile of active opponents. It reflected the Congress's recognition that the conflict had become a civil war within the colonies themselves. The act provided a framework for handling internal dissent as independence debates intensified.

Culture 18th Century North America

Thomas Paine Publishes Common Sense

By early 1776, American colonists were deeply divided over whether to seek reconciliation with Britain or pursue full independence amid escalating conflict. Philadelphia-based writer Thomas Paine, recently arrived from England, crafted a forceful 47-page pamphlet arguing against monarchy and for republican government. Released on January 10, Common Sense sold hundreds of thousands of copies rapidly, reaching a broad audience of literate colonists. Paine's plain language framed independence as both practical and morally necessary. The pamphlet shifted public opinion dramatically in favor of separation from Britain.

Military 18th Century Latin America & Caribbean

US Marines Launch First Amphibious Assault at Nassau

In the opening months of the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress sought to disrupt British supply lines in the Caribbean by targeting the lightly defended island of New Providence in the Bahamas. On March 3, 1776, a fleet under Commodore Esek Hopkins carrying approximately 250 Continental Marines and sailors approached Nassau. The Marines executed the first amphibious landing in U.S. military history, storming ashore and capturing Fort Montagu with minimal resistance. British Governor Montfort Browne surrendered the town and its valuable gunpowder stores the following day. The raid yielded critical munitions for the Patriot cause while demonstrating the Marines' emerging role in expeditionary operations. Casualties remained low on both sides, but the success boosted morale among colonial forces early...

Continental Army Fortifies Dorchester Heights

In the midst of the American Revolutionary War, British forces under General William Howe had occupied Boston since 1775, imposing a siege on the surrounding Continental Army led by General George Washington. The British controlled the city and its harbor but faced growing colonial resistance. On March 4, 1776, Brigadier General John Thomas directed approximately 2,000 American troops to move cannons and fortifications overnight to Dorchester Heights, a strategic elevated position south of Boston previously left undefended. Heavy artillery fire from British positions provided cover during the operation. By morning, the Americans had established a formidable battery overlooking the city and harbor. This development forced Howe to reconsider his position, ultimately leading to the British evacuation of Boston on March...

British Forces Evacuate Boston

After eleven months of siege during the American Revolutionary War, Continental Army forces under General George Washington fortified Dorchester Heights overlooking Boston Harbor with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga. British commander General William Howe recognized the position had become untenable. On March 17, British troops and Loyalists boarded ships and departed for Halifax, Nova Scotia, marking the first major victory for the Patriot cause. The evacuation ended the Siege of Boston without further bloodshed in the city itself. Washington’s strategic use of the heights forced the British withdrawal after a storm prevented their planned counterattack.

Halifax Resolves Authorize Independence Vote

In the spring of 1776, as fighting raged around Boston and New York, North Carolina's Provincial Congress met in Halifax amid growing calls for separation from Britain. Delegates debated instructions for their representatives to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. On April 12 the congress unanimously adopted the Halifax Resolves, the first colonial resolution explicitly authorizing a vote for independence. The document empowered delegates to join any confederation of colonies and to declare independence if necessary. News of the resolves spread quickly, bolstering momentum toward the Declaration of Independence two months later.

Rhode Island First to Renounce British Allegiance

By early 1776, tensions between the thirteen American colonies and Britain had escalated into open conflict following the battles at Lexington and Concord the previous year. Rhode Island, founded on principles of religious liberty and self-governance by Roger Williams, had long chafed under royal authority. On May 4, 1776, the colony's General Assembly passed an act repealing all oaths of allegiance to King George III and directing that official documents and commissions omit references to the Crown, substituting the authority of the colony's governor and company instead. This made Rhode Island the first North American colony to formally sever legal ties with Britain, two months before the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. The measure reflected growing colonial resolve...

Virginia Convention Calls for Colonial Independence

By spring 1776, the American colonies faced irreconcilable conflict with Britain after the rejection of the Olive Branch Petition and increasing military actions. Virginia's Fifth Revolutionary Convention met in Williamsburg amid debates over reconciliation versus separation. On May 15, 1776, delegates unanimously passed resolutions instructing Virginia's Continental Congress delegates to propose declaring the United Colonies free and independent states, absolved from allegiance to the British Crown. They also authorized a committee to draft a declaration of rights and state constitution. This action positioned Virginia at the forefront of the push for independence.

Lee Resolution Proposes American Independence

By spring 1776, tensions between the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had escalated into open conflict following the battles at Lexington and Concord. Delegates to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia debated the future relationship with the Crown amid growing calls for separation. On June 7, Virginia delegate Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution declaring that the colonies ought to be free and independent states, with all political connection to Britain dissolved. John Adams of Massachusetts seconded the motion, which sparked intense discussion over the next weeks. The resolution passed on July 2 and directly paved the way for the Declaration of Independence adopted days later.

Continental Congress Appoints Committee of Five

By mid-1776 the American colonies had been at war with Britain for over a year, and sentiment for full independence had grown strong among delegates meeting in Philadelphia. On June 11 the Second Continental Congress formally created a five-member drafting committee consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. The group was tasked with producing a document that would justify separation from Great Britain and articulate the principles of self-government. Jefferson, the youngest member, took primary responsibility for composing the initial draft over the following weeks. The committee presented its work to Congress on June 28, leading directly to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4.

Continental Congress Votes for Independence

In the summer of 1776, delegates to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia debated separation from Britain amid escalating conflict following Lexington and Concord. On June 7, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution declaring the colonies free and independent states. After weeks of discussion and revisions to a draft declaration, the Congress formally adopted Lee’s resolution on July 2 by a vote of twelve colonies in favor, with New York abstaining. The decision came after Caesar Rodney’s dramatic ride to break a Delaware deadlock. This vote established the legal basis for the United States, though the formal Declaration of Independence was approved two days later.

Continental Congress Adopts Declaration of Independence

By mid-1776, the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia had moved from petitioning King George III to debating full separation after months of armed conflict. On July 2, delegates passed Richard Henry Lee's resolution declaring the colonies free and independent states. Thomas Jefferson's committee draft was revised over two days, removing passages on the slave trade and softening language on the British people. On July 4 the Congress unanimously approved the final text, which listed 27 grievances and asserted natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Printed copies circulated rapidly, and the document was publicly read in Philadelphia on July 8. The act transformed a colonial rebellion into a formal assertion of sovereignty that inspired later independence movements.

Declaration of Independence Read Publicly in Philadelphia

By the summer of 1776 the Second Continental Congress had broken with Britain and adopted a formal statement of independence on July 4. With British forces threatening the colonies, leaders recognized the need to rally popular support beyond the halls of Congress. On July 8, Colonel John Nixon stood before a crowd gathered at the State House yard in Philadelphia and read the Declaration aloud for the first time. Church bells, including the one later known as the Liberty Bell, rang out across the city. The public reading transformed an internal congressional document into a widely shared call to arms that spread rapidly through the colonies via newspapers and broadsides.

Delegates Sign U.S. Declaration of Independence

In the summer of 1776, the Thirteen Colonies had been engaged in open rebellion against British rule for over a year following the battles at Lexington and Concord. The Second Continental Congress had adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, but the formal parchment copy required signatures from the delegates. On August 2, most of the 56 signers, including prominent figures like John Hancock and Thomas Jefferson, affixed their names in Philadelphia. Additional signatures were added later by those absent that day. The act publicly committed the colonies to the cause of separation and justified it with a list of grievances against King George III. This step transformed a political protest into a formal assertion of sovereignty.

British Forces Land on Long Island in Revolutionary War

In the summer of 1776, following the American Declaration of Independence, British commanders sought to crush the rebellion by capturing New York City and controlling the strategic Hudson River. General William Howe assembled a massive expeditionary force of over 20,000 troops, including British regulars and Hessian auxiliaries, on Staten Island. On August 22, 1776, an advance guard of about 4,000 soldiers landed unopposed at Gravesend Bay on the western end of Long Island, with the main body following to establish camps near Flatbush. American forces under General George Washington, numbering around 7,000 on the island, had prepared defensive positions along a ridge but left key passes lightly guarded. The landing marked the start of the largest battle of the Revolutionary...

British Forces Defeat Americans at Battle of Long Island

In the summer of 1776, the American Revolutionary War was underway with British forces seeking to crush the rebellion by capturing New York City. General William Howe landed troops on Long Island in late August, outmaneuvering the Continental Army positioned under General George Washington. On August 27, British troops flanked American lines in a series of engagements that became the largest battle of the conflict. American forces suffered heavy casualties, particularly among Maryland regiments that covered the retreat. Washington managed to withdraw his army across the East River to Manhattan under cover of fog and darkness that night. The defeat forced the Americans to abandon New York but preserved the Continental Army for future campaigns.

Technology 18th Century North America

Turtle Submarine Attempts First Naval Attack

As the American Revolutionary War intensified around New York, inventor David Bushnell developed the Turtle, a one-man wooden submersible designed to attach explosive charges to British ships. On September 7, 1776, Sergeant Ezra Lee piloted the craft into New York Harbor under cover of night, targeting Admiral Richard Howe's flagship HMS Eagle. Lee maneuvered beneath the vessel but struggled to drill through its copper-sheathed hull due to the tool's limitations and strong currents. The attempt failed when the bomb detached prematurely and exploded harmlessly nearby, alerting the British without damaging their ship. Though unsuccessful, the mission marked the first combat use of a submarine in naval warfare.

Continental Congress Names Nation United States

By mid-1776, the American colonies had declared independence from Britain on July 4, yet still referred to themselves collectively as the United Colonies in official documents. The Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, sought a formal national identity as war with Britain intensified and foreign alliances became essential. On September 9, delegates resolved that the new nation would henceforth be called the United States of America, replacing earlier terminology. This change appeared in subsequent resolutions and correspondence. The decision reflected growing unity among the thirteen colonies and clarified their status as a sovereign entity to European powers.

British Forces Land at Kip's Bay During Revolution

In the summer of 1776, General George Washington's Continental Army defended New York City after the British evacuation from Boston earlier that year. British General William Howe sought to seize the strategic port and isolate Patriot forces. On September 15, a massive British flotilla of warships bombarded American positions at Kip's Bay on Manhattan's East River shore, where inexperienced Connecticut militia guarded the area. The intense naval cannonade caused the militia to flee in panic, allowing 4,000 British and Hessian troops to land unopposed in flatboats. Washington attempted to rally his men but narrowly escaped capture as British forces advanced inland, nearly cutting off American retreat routes from southern Manhattan. The successful landing enabled the British to occupy New York...

Nathan Hale Executed as Spy by British Forces

In the midst of the American Revolutionary War, British troops occupied New York City after their victory at the Battle of Brooklyn. Continental Army Captain Nathan Hale, a young officer and former schoolteacher from Connecticut, volunteered for a dangerous intelligence mission behind enemy lines. Disguised as a Dutch schoolmaster, he gathered information on British positions and troop movements. Captured on September 21 while attempting to return to American lines, Hale faced a swift military trial the following day. British General William Howe ordered his execution without formal proceedings typical of the era. On September 22, Hale was hanged in Manhattan as a spy, reportedly declaring his regret that he had but one life to lose for his country.

Battle of Valcour Island Fought on Lake Champlain

During the American Revolutionary War, British forces under General Guy Carleton aimed to advance south from Canada into the Hudson River valley to split the colonies. American Brigadier General Benedict Arnold, commanding a hastily assembled Continental fleet of about 15 vessels including gondolas and schooners, positioned his ships defensively in Valcour Bay on Lake Champlain to obstruct this route. On October 11, 1776, the British fleet of superior warships and gunboats engaged the Americans in a fierce day-long naval battle marked by heavy cannon fire and ship damage on both sides. Though the British ultimately prevailed, destroying or capturing most American vessels, Arnold's fleet escaped under cover of night and fog, forcing the British to pursue over subsequent days. The...