1814

Politics 19th Century Europe

Napoleon Abdicates and Exiled to Elba

By early 1814, Napoleon's empire faced collapse after defeats in Russia and a coalition of European powers invaded France. His marshals urged him to step down rather than fight to the end in Paris. On April 11, representatives signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, formalizing Napoleon's unconditional abdication as Emperor of the French. The agreement granted him sovereignty over the small Mediterranean island of Elba, where he could retain his title and a small court but remain under Allied surveillance. Napoleon departed Fontainebleau shortly afterward, boarding a ship for Elba and ending more than a decade of dominance across Europe. The treaty temporarily restored the Bourbon monarchy under Louis XVIII.

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Politics 19th Century Europe

Norway Signs Its Constitution

Following the Napoleonic Wars and the Treaty of Kiel that ceded Norway from Denmark to Sweden, Norwegian leaders sought independence. A constituent assembly convened at Eidsvoll in April 1814 to draft a constitution amid fears of Swedish domination. On May 17, 1814, the assembly signed the Constitution of Norway and elected Crown Prince Christian Frederick as king. This document established a constitutional monarchy with separation of powers and protections for individual rights. The immediate result was a short-lived independent Norwegian state that resisted full Swedish control.

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Battle of Lundy's Lane Fought in War of 1812

During the War of 1812, American forces under General Jacob Brown sought to invade Upper Canada via the Niagara frontier after successes at Chippewa. On July 25, British troops commanded by General Gordon Drummond reinforced positions at Lundy's Lane near Niagara Falls to halt the advance. Intense fighting erupted in the evening, with artillery duels and close-quarters combat lasting into the night amid heavy casualties on both sides. Commanders including Brown, Winfield Scott, and Phineas Riall were wounded, and the battle became one of the bloodiest of the war with over 1,700 total losses. American forces withdrew after failing to dislodge the British, ending their offensive momentum in the region.

British Forces Burn Washington During War of 1812

The War of 1812 between the United States and Britain had already seen American forces burn the Canadian parliament building in York. In retaliation, a British expeditionary force under Major General Robert Ross advanced on the American capital in August 1814. On August 24, after defeating American militia at Bladensburg, the British entered Washington, D.C., and systematically set fire to public buildings including the Capitol and the White House. President James Madison and his cabinet fled the city as flames consumed government structures. The occupation lasted only a day before the British withdrew.

Battle of Baltimore Begins in War of 1812

Following their burning of Washington, D.C., British forces under Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane targeted Baltimore, a key American port and privateering center, during the War of 1812. On September 12, British troops landed and advanced toward the city while warships bombarded Fort McHenry guarding the harbor entrance. American defenders, including militia and regulars under Samuel Smith, repelled the land assault at North Point, where British commander Robert Ross was killed. The fort withstood a night of naval bombardment, during which Francis Scott Key witnessed the American flag still flying and composed the poem that became the U.S. national anthem. The successful defense forced the British to withdraw, boosting American morale late in the conflict.

British Bombard Fort McHenry in Baltimore

During the War of 1812, British forces launched a combined land and sea assault on the port city of Baltimore following their burning of Washington, D.C. American defenders under Major George Armistead prepared Fort McHenry in the harbor as a key obstacle. On September 13, British ships unleashed a prolonged 25-hour bombardment with mortars and Congreve rockets. Francis Scott Key, detained aboard a truce ship nearby, observed the American flag still flying at dawn despite the assault. The fort's resistance forced the British to abandon their plans, preserving Baltimore.

Culture 19th Century North America

Francis Scott Key Pens Star-Spangled Banner

During the War of 1812, British forces attacked Baltimore in September 1814 as part of their campaign against the young United States. American lawyer Francis Scott Key had boarded a British truce ship to negotiate the release of a prisoner and was detained overnight aboard the vessel while the Royal Navy bombarded Fort McHenry. On the night of September 13–14, he witnessed the fort withstand a fierce barrage of shells and rockets. At dawn on September 14, Key saw the American flag still flying over the fort, inspiring him to write a poem titled “Defence of Fort M’Henry” on the back of an envelope. The verses, later set to music, became the U.S. national anthem in 1931.

Politics 19th Century Europe

Treaty of Ghent Signed Ending War of 1812

By late 1814, the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain had dragged on amid shifting European alliances after Napoleon's defeat. American and British negotiators had been meeting in Ghent in the United Netherlands since August. On December 24, 1814, they signed the Treaty of Peace and Amity, restoring pre-war boundaries and returning captured territories without resolving impressment or trade issues. News of the signing reached North America weeks later, after key battles like New Orleans. The treaty was ratified unanimously by the U.S. Senate in February 1815.