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Politics

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Politics 18th Century North America

U.S. Postal System Established by Continental Congress

In the midst of the American Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress sought to create reliable communication channels for the colonies as they coordinated resistance against British rule. On July 26, 1775, the Congress formally established the office that would become the United States Post Office Department. Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania was appointed as the first Postmaster General, drawing on his prior experience managing colonial postal routes. This step centralized mail delivery across the thirteen colonies, replacing fragmented British-controlled systems. The new department enabled faster exchange of news, military orders, and political correspondence essential to the independence effort. Franklin served until early 1776, laying foundational practices for what grew into a major federal institution.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Halifax Resolves Authorize Independence Vote

In the spring of 1776, as fighting raged around Boston and New York, North Carolina's Provincial Congress met in Halifax amid growing calls for separation from Britain. Delegates debated instructions for their representatives to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. On April 12 the congress unanimously adopted the Halifax Resolves, the first colonial resolution explicitly authorizing a vote for independence. The document empowered delegates to join any confederation of colonies and to declare independence if necessary. News of the resolves spread quickly, bolstering momentum toward the Declaration of Independence two months later.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Rhode Island First to Renounce British Allegiance

By early 1776, tensions between the thirteen American colonies and Britain had escalated into open conflict following the battles at Lexington and Concord the previous year. Rhode Island, founded on principles of religious liberty and self-governance by Roger Williams, had long chafed under royal authority. On May 4, 1776, the colony's General Assembly passed an act repealing all oaths of allegiance to King George III and directing that official documents and commissions omit references to the Crown, substituting the authority of the colony's governor and company instead. This made Rhode Island the first North American colony to formally sever legal ties with Britain, two months before the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. The measure reflected growing colonial resolve...

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Politics 18th Century North America

Virginia Convention Calls for Colonial Independence

By spring 1776, the American colonies faced irreconcilable conflict with Britain after the rejection of the Olive Branch Petition and increasing military actions. Virginia's Fifth Revolutionary Convention met in Williamsburg amid debates over reconciliation versus separation. On May 15, 1776, delegates unanimously passed resolutions instructing Virginia's Continental Congress delegates to propose declaring the United Colonies free and independent states, absolved from allegiance to the British Crown. They also authorized a committee to draft a declaration of rights and state constitution. This action positioned Virginia at the forefront of the push for independence.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Lee Resolution Proposes American Independence

By spring 1776, tensions between the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had escalated into open conflict following the battles at Lexington and Concord. Delegates to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia debated the future relationship with the Crown amid growing calls for separation. On June 7, Virginia delegate Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution declaring that the colonies ought to be free and independent states, with all political connection to Britain dissolved. John Adams of Massachusetts seconded the motion, which sparked intense discussion over the next weeks. The resolution passed on July 2 and directly paved the way for the Declaration of Independence adopted days later.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Continental Congress Appoints Committee of Five

By mid-1776 the American colonies had been at war with Britain for over a year, and sentiment for full independence had grown strong among delegates meeting in Philadelphia. On June 11 the Second Continental Congress formally created a five-member drafting committee consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. The group was tasked with producing a document that would justify separation from Great Britain and articulate the principles of self-government. Jefferson, the youngest member, took primary responsibility for composing the initial draft over the following weeks. The committee presented its work to Congress on June 28, leading directly to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Continental Congress Votes for Independence

In the summer of 1776, delegates to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia debated separation from Britain amid escalating conflict following Lexington and Concord. On June 7, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution declaring the colonies free and independent states. After weeks of discussion and revisions to a draft declaration, the Congress formally adopted Lee’s resolution on July 2 by a vote of twelve colonies in favor, with New York abstaining. The decision came after Caesar Rodney’s dramatic ride to break a Delaware deadlock. This vote established the legal basis for the United States, though the formal Declaration of Independence was approved two days later.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Continental Congress Adopts Declaration of Independence

By mid-1776, the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia had moved from petitioning King George III to debating full separation after months of armed conflict. On July 2, delegates passed Richard Henry Lee's resolution declaring the colonies free and independent states. Thomas Jefferson's committee draft was revised over two days, removing passages on the slave trade and softening language on the British people. On July 4 the Congress unanimously approved the final text, which listed 27 grievances and asserted natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Printed copies circulated rapidly, and the document was publicly read in Philadelphia on July 8. The act transformed a colonial rebellion into a formal assertion of sovereignty that inspired later independence movements.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Declaration of Independence Read Publicly in Philadelphia

By the summer of 1776 the Second Continental Congress had broken with Britain and adopted a formal statement of independence on July 4. With British forces threatening the colonies, leaders recognized the need to rally popular support beyond the halls of Congress. On July 8, Colonel John Nixon stood before a crowd gathered at the State House yard in Philadelphia and read the Declaration aloud for the first time. Church bells, including the one later known as the Liberty Bell, rang out across the city. The public reading transformed an internal congressional document into a widely shared call to arms that spread rapidly through the colonies via newspapers and broadsides.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Delegates Sign U.S. Declaration of Independence

In the summer of 1776, the Thirteen Colonies had been engaged in open rebellion against British rule for over a year following the battles at Lexington and Concord. The Second Continental Congress had adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, but the formal parchment copy required signatures from the delegates. On August 2, most of the 56 signers, including prominent figures like John Hancock and Thomas Jefferson, affixed their names in Philadelphia. Additional signatures were added later by those absent that day. The act publicly committed the colonies to the cause of separation and justified it with a list of grievances against King George III. This step transformed a political protest into a formal assertion of sovereignty.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Continental Congress Names Nation United States

By mid-1776, the American colonies had declared independence from Britain on July 4, yet still referred to themselves collectively as the United Colonies in official documents. The Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, sought a formal national identity as war with Britain intensified and foreign alliances became essential. On September 9, delegates resolved that the new nation would henceforth be called the United States of America, replacing earlier terminology. This change appeared in subsequent resolutions and correspondence. The decision reflected growing unity among the thirteen colonies and clarified their status as a sovereign entity to European powers.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Thomas Paine Publishes The American Crisis

As George Washington's Continental Army retreated through New Jersey in the bleak winter of 1776, facing low morale and expiring enlistments after defeats in New York, revolutionary writer Thomas Paine responded with urgent prose. On December 19, the first pamphlet in his series The American Crisis appeared in The Pennsylvania Journal, opening with the famous line about times that try men's souls. Paine, using the pseudonym Common Sense, urged perseverance against British forces and tyranny. The essay was read aloud to troops and helped rally support during a critical low point in the Revolutionary War. Its immediate distribution bolstered Patriot resolve ahead of the surprise victory at Trenton.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Vermont Declares Independence

During the American Revolutionary War, settlers in the New Hampshire Grants region faced conflicting land claims from New York and New Hampshire while resisting British authority. On January 15, 1777, delegates from 28 towns gathered in Westminster and formally declared the territory independent, initially naming it the Republic of New Connecticut. The declaration rejected both British colonial rule and New York's jurisdiction, establishing a provisional government under leaders including Thomas Chittenden and drawing on the Green Mountain Boys militia for defense. This act created one of the few independent republics in North America outside the Thirteen Colonies. Vermont maintained sovereignty for 14 years before joining the United States in 1791 as the 14th state.

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Politics 18th Century North America

New York Adopts First State Constitution

During the American Revolutionary War, British forces had captured New York City and much of the surrounding area by late 1776, forcing colonial leaders to operate from safer upstate locations. In this context of ongoing conflict and uncertainty about reconciliation with Britain, the Convention of Representatives of the State of New York convened in Kingston. On April 20, 1777, the convention formally adopted the state's first constitution after months of drafting. Primarily authored by figures including John Jay, Robert R. Livingston, and Gouverneur Morris, the document established separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. It called for a governor, a 24-member senate, and a larger assembly, while limiting voting to male property owners and guaranteeing the right to trial by jury.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Articles of Confederation Adopted by Congress

In the midst of the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress had been operating without a formal framework since declaring independence in 1776. Meeting in York, Pennsylvania, after British forces occupied Philadelphia, delegates spent over a year debating the structure of a national government. On November 15, 1777, they finally approved the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, establishing the first constitution for the united colonies. The document created a weak central government with limited powers over taxation and commerce while preserving strong state sovereignty. Ratification by all thirteen states took until 1781, but the adoption marked a critical step toward formal union. This framework guided the nation through the war and early years of independence until replaced by the...

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Politics 18th Century North America

U.S. Congress Submits Articles of Confederation

During the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress struggled to create a framework for uniting the thirteen colonies against British rule while respecting state sovereignty. After over a year of debate, Congress approved the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, and formally submitted them to the states two days later on November 17. The document established a weak central government with powers limited to war, diplomacy, and postal service, leaving most authority with the states. Ratification proved contentious, delayed especially by disputes over western land claims until Maryland's approval in 1781. This first national constitution guided the young United States through the final years of the war and the immediate postwar period.

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Politics 18th Century North America

France Formally Recognizes United States Independence

During the American Revolutionary War, American diplomats including Benjamin Franklin sought European allies against Britain after the Continental Army’s victory at Saratoga in October 1777. News of the triumph reached Paris in early December, strengthening the American position. On December 17, 1777, French Foreign Minister Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, with King Louis XVI’s approval, officially acknowledged the United States as an independent nation. This marked the first major European power to grant such recognition. The decision shifted the conflict into an international war and paved the way for formal treaties of alliance and commerce signed in February 1778.

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Politics 18th Century North America

John Adams Departs for France to Negotiate Alliance

During the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress sought foreign alliances to counter British power after early military setbacks. John Adams had already contributed to independence efforts as a delegate and drafter of key documents. On February 13, 1778, Adams and his young son John Quincy boarded the frigate Boston in Marblehead Harbor, Massachusetts, bound for France to replace Silas Deane and strengthen the diplomatic commission. Their voyage succeeded in formalizing the Franco-American alliance that provided crucial military and financial support.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Benedict Arnold Commits Treason at West Point

By the summer of 1780, the American Revolutionary War had dragged on for five years, with General George Washington relying heavily on trusted officers like Benedict Arnold, a hero of earlier battles such as Saratoga. Arnold, embittered by perceived slights, financial troubles, and a Loyalist wife, secretly negotiated with British forces to surrender the strategic fort at West Point on the Hudson River. On September 21, Arnold met British Major John André at the Joshua Hett Smith House to finalize plans for handing over the fort and its garrison in exchange for money and a British command. The plot unraveled when American forces captured André carrying incriminating documents the next day, forcing Arnold to flee to British lines. Washington expressed...

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Politics 18th Century North America

Articles of Confederation Ratified

After years of debate during the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress had approved the Articles of Confederation in November 1777 as the first framework for a national government among the thirteen colonies. Maryland, the final holdout state concerned about western land claims, ratified the document on February 2, 1781. Congress received the news and formally proclaimed the Articles in effect on March 1, 1781, establishing the Congress of the Confederation as the central authority. This loose union coordinated wartime efforts but preserved strong state sovereignty. The new government operated under these terms through the remainder of the Revolution and into the postwar period.

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Politics 18th Century North America

Congress Adopts the Great Seal of the United States

After the American colonies declared independence, the Continental Congress sought an official emblem to authenticate documents and symbolize the new nation. A committee including Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson proposed designs drawing on classical and heraldic elements. On June 20, 1782, Congress approved a final design featuring a bald eagle clutching an olive branch and arrows, with a shield of stripes and stars. Charles Thomson, the Congress secretary, finalized the details. The seal was first used later that year on a document. It established enduring national iconography still in use today.

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Politics 18th Century North America

US and Britain Sign Preliminary Peace Articles

After the American victory at Yorktown in 1781, the British government under Lord North fell, opening negotiations in Paris. American commissioners Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams met British envoy Richard Oswald to discuss terms ending the Revolutionary War. On November 30, 1782, they signed preliminary articles recognizing American independence, setting generous western boundaries to the Mississippi River, and addressing issues like fishing rights and Loyalist property. The agreement was provisional, contingent on Britain concluding peace with France and Spain. News reached the Continental Congress in early 1783, where it faced debate but ultimately guided the final Treaty of Paris signed in September 1783. The articles formalized the diplomatic triumph of the American cause.

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Politics Born On 18th Century North America

Martin Van Buren Born in Kinderhook

Martin Van Buren was born on December 5, 1782, in Kinderhook, New York. Raised in a Dutch-speaking household, he trained as a lawyer and became an influential organizer in New York politics. Van Buren helped build disciplined party organizations and became a major architect of the political coalition that developed into the Democratic Party. He served as a U.S. senator, governor of New York, secretary of state, and vice president under Andrew Jackson before winning the presidency in 1836. Van Buren served as the eighth president from 1837 to 1841 and was the first president born after the Declaration of Independence. His administration was quickly confronted by the Panic of 1837 and a prolonged economic downturn. After losing reelection to...

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Politics 18th Century North America

Washington Quells Newburgh Conspiracy

As the American Revolutionary War drew to a close, Continental Army officers stationed in Newburgh, New York, grew frustrated with Congress's failure to pay back wages or provide promised pensions amid postwar economic strains. Anonymous letters circulated calling for a meeting to consider forceful action against civilian authority. On March 15, 1783, General George Washington made an unexpected appearance at the officers' assembly. In a moving speech, he appealed to their patriotism and loyalty, reading a letter from a Virginia delegate and removing his spectacles to remark on his own sacrifices. The officers abandoned any thoughts of mutiny or coup, reaffirming their commitment to the civilian government.

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