August 29
Treaty of Nanking Ends First Opium War
Signed aboard HMS Cornwallis in the Yangtze River off Nanjing, the Treaty of Nanking ended the First Opium War and imposed territorial, commercial, and financial concessions on the Qing dynasty.
Summary
The First Opium War arose from British efforts to reverse trade imbalances with Qing China by importing opium, leading to conflict after Chinese authorities seized and destroyed British opium stocks in 1839. British naval superiority forced negotiations. On August 29, 1842, representatives signed the Treaty of Nanking aboard HMS Cornwallis in Nanjing, with Britain represented by Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing officials including Keying. The treaty ceded Hong Kong to Britain, opened five treaty ports to foreign trade, and imposed indemnities and tariff regulations on China.
Context
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, Britain ran a persistent trade deficit with China, paying silver for tea, silk, and porcelain while finding few Chinese buyers for British manufactures. To balance the accounts, merchants from British India shipped growing quantities of opium, which Chinese law had banned. Smuggling thrived despite periodic crackdowns, and the Canton system confined all legal foreign trade to a single southern port under the control of a licensed merchant guild.
What Happened
By the summer of 1842, British naval and land forces had advanced far up the Yangtze, threatening the Grand Canal and the grain supply to Beijing. Qing authorities dispatched Imperial Commissioner Keying, together with Yilibu and Niu Jian, to negotiate with British plenipotentiary Sir Henry Pottinger. Talks took place aboard the anchored warship HMS Cornwallis in the river near Nanjing.
Aftermath
On 29 August the two sides signed a thirteen-article treaty. Britain received perpetual sovereignty over Hong Kong Island, the opening of five treaty ports to foreign merchants and consuls, a fixed tariff schedule, and an indemnity totaling twenty-one million silver dollars for destroyed opium, merchant debts, and war costs. The Daoguang Emperor ratified the agreement in October and Queen Victoria in December; ratifications were exchanged in Hong Kong the following June.
Legacy
The Treaty of Nanking became the model for subsequent “unequal treaties” that other Western powers extracted from China. It dismantled the Canton system, introduced extraterritoriality through a 1843 supplement, and left the opium trade unregulated, marking the start of what later Chinese nationalists termed the “Century of Humiliation.”
Why It Matters
As the first of the 'unequal treaties,' it marked the beginning of China's 'Century of Humiliation,' eroding Qing sovereignty and opening the door to further foreign encroachments. It established a template for Western imperial relations with East Asia that influenced global trade and diplomacy for decades.
Related Questions
What were the main territorial and commercial provisions of the Treaty of Nanking?
Britain gained Hong Kong Island in perpetuity and the right to trade at five open ports with fixed tariffs; the Canton system monopoly ended.
Why did the First Opium War break out?
Chinese authorities destroyed British opium stocks in 1839 after years of illegal imports used to offset Britain’s trade deficit with China.
How did the treaty affect Qing sovereignty?
It introduced extraterritoriality for British subjects, limited tariff autonomy, and opened ports without reciprocal Chinese rights, setting a precedent for later unequal agreements.
What followed the Treaty of Nanking?
A supplementary Treaty of the Bogue in 1843 granted extraterritorial rights, and similar treaties were soon signed with other Western powers.
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Sources
- Treaty of Nanking, Wikipedia. Accessed 2026-07-02.
- Treaty of Nanjing, Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed 2026-07-02.